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Synopsis:

Decommissioning nuclear facilities is a relatively new field, which has developed rapidly in the 1990s. It involves materials that may be highly radioactive and therefore require sophisticated methods of containment and remote handling. The wastes arising from decommissioning are hazardous and have to be stored or disposed safely in order to protect the environment and future generations. Nuclear decommissioning work must be carried out to the highest possible standards to protect workers, the general public and the environment. This book describes the techniques used for dismantling redundant nuclear facilities, the safe storage of radioactive wastes and the restoration of nuclear licensed sites.

Table of Contents:

About the authors
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Setting the Scene
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Evolution of the Current Organisational Arrangements in the UK
1.3 A European Perspective on Nuclear Power Generation
1.4 An International Perspective on Radioactive Waste Management
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 General Nuclear Waste Classifications
1.4.3 Nuclear Waste Disposal Concepts
1.4.4 Management and Funding Arrangements
1.4.5 Multinational Radioactive Waste Facilities
1.5 International Regulation & Collaboration
1.5.1 The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
1.5.2 The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
1.5.3 The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD NEA)
1.5.4 The European Commission
1.6 The Kyoto Protocol and OSPAR (Oslo Paris Convention)
1.6.1 The Kyoto Protocol
1.6.2 OSPAR (Oslo/Paris) Convention
1.7 Waste Production
1.8 Acronyms and Abbreviations
2 Ionising Radiation and the Protection of Man
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Historical Background
2.3 Basic Concepts and Units
2.4 Biological Aspects of Radiological Protection
2.5 Conceptual Framework for Radiation Protection
2.6 The Control of Occupational Exposure
2.7 The Control of Medical Exposure
2.8 The Control of Public Exposure
2.9 Potential Exposures
2.10 Intervention
2.11 Practical Advice on Radiation Protection Implementation
2.12 The Role of NRPB
2.13 Practical Advice on Principles for Solid Radioactive Waste Disposal
2.14 Exemption of Sources from Regulatory Controls
2.15 Chronic Exposures
3 Decommissioning – Introduction and Overview
3.1 Definition and Scope
3.2 The Stages of Decommissioning
3.3 Drivers for Determining Decommissioning Plans and Programmes
3.4 Risk verses Hazard
3.5 Contrasting Reactor Decommissioning With Other Facilities
3.6 Availability of Guidance and Reference Information
4 Typical Government Policy on Decommissioning
4.1 Introduction
4.2 How and Why is Government Involved?
4.2.1 Historical
4.2.2 Safety
4.2.3 Regulatory Policy
4.2.4 Security
4.2.5 Decommissioning and Waste Management
4.2.6 National Economic Benefits
4.2.7 The Consequences of Failure
4.3 Some of the Key Drivers for Government
4.3.1 The Costs Involved
4.3.2 National and International Responsibilities
4.3.3 Business Potential
4.4 Current Developments
4.4.1 Structural Issues
4.4.2 Skills Issues
4.4.3 Regulatory Issues
4.4.4 Waste Issues
4.5 Decommissioning Research Framework Programmes of the European Community
4.6 The Challenges Ahead
5 The Transition From Operations to Decommissioning
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Preparing for the Transition
5.3 Human Resource Issues
5.4 Information Requirements
5.5 Implementation Issues
5.6 Costs of Transition Activities
6 Reactor Decommissioning - The Safestore Concept
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Decommissioning and Radioactivity
6.2.1 Decommissioning Strategy and Option Selection
6.2.2 Activation Inventory
6.2.3 Worker Dose Modelling
6.2.4 Radioactive Waste Minimisation Modelling
6.2.5 Arguments Against Deferral
6.3 Decommissioning Activities
6.4 Paying for Decommissioning
7 Decommissioning PIE and Other Facilities
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Key Issues to be Considered
7.3 Alpha and Gamma Radiation Working
7.4 Decommissioning Examples
8 Preparation of Documentation for Decommissioning
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Decommissioning Plan and Programme
8.3 Decommissioning Safety Case
8.4 Conventional Safety Documentation Requirements
8.5 Management Procedures and Quality Assurance
8.6 Examples of Typical Safety Documentation
8.6.1 Materials Test reactors to Stage 2 Decommissioning
8.6.2 Jason (Royal Naval College) Reactor to Stage 3 Decommissioning
8.6.3 Site Environmental Remediation to Unrestricted Use
9 Radiological Characterisation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 General Approach
9.3 Characterisation Plan
9.4 In-Situ Measurements
9.5 Sampling and Analysis
9.6 Quality Assurance Requirements
9.7 Characterisation Report
10 Decontamination Techniques
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives and Constraints for Decontamination
10.3 Characteristics of Decontamination Techniques
10.3.1 Non-Attritive Cleaning
10.3.2 Chemical Decontamination
10.3.3 Physical Attrition
10.4 Waste Minimisation and Treatment
10.5 Selecting a Decontamination Technique
10.6 Positive and Negative Experiences from Completed Projects
11 Dismantling Techniques
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Cutting Techniques
11.2.1 Mechanical Cutting
11.2.2 Thermal Cutting
11.2.3 Other Methods
11.3 Remote Handling Techniques
11.4 Radiological Protection During Dismantling
11.4.1 Contamination Containment
11.4.2 Personal Protective Equipment
11.5 Case Study: WAGR Decommissioning
11.5.1 Introduction
11.5.2 Decommissioning Plan
11.5.3 Remote Operations – Dismantling the Core Components
11.5.4 The Dismantling Campaigns
11.5.5 Fuel Strategy
12 Site Environmental Restoration Programme Management
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Framework for Environmental Restoration Programme Management
12.3 The Strategic Plan
12.3.1 Introduction
12.3.2 A Strategic Planning System
12.3.3 Managing the Care and Maintenance Process
12.3.4 Programme Risk Management
12.3.5 Programme and Project Prioritisation
12.4 The Integrated Site Restoration Plan
12.5 Making the Case for a Project to Proceed
12.6 The Project Sanction Process
12.6.1 Introduction
12.6.2 Typical Sanction Paper Structure
12.7 Principles for Carrying Out Financial Appraisals
12.8 Sanction Case Study - Repacking Site X Legacy Intermediate Level
Wastes
13 Project Investment Appraisal and Contract Strategy
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Capital Investment
13.3 Project Identification
13.4 Appraisal Methods
13.4.1 Rate of Return
13.4.2 Payback
13.4.3 Time Value of Money
13.4.4 Discounted Cash Flow
- Net Present Value (NPV)
- Discounted Cash Flow (DCF)
- Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
13.5 Project Investment Examples
13.5.1 NPV Example
13.5.2 IRR Example
13.5.3 NPV vs. IRR
13.5.4 Project X, Other Problems and Discussion
13.6 Modern Contract Strategy in the Nuclear Industry
13.6.1 Introduction
13.6.2 Modern Contract Selection Appropriate to Nuclear Decommissioning
13.6.3 Types of Contract
13.7 Alternative Sources of Funds
13.7.1 Introduction
13.7.2 What is PFI?
13.7.3 Fixed Price/Risk Premium and Value for Money
13.7.4 Technical Viability and PFI Project Set-Up Costs
13.7.5 The Staged Approach to PFI
13.8 Enclosures
Table A - Present Value of £1
Table B - Present Value of £1 Received Annually for N Years
13.9 Exercises
13.9.1 – 13.9.8
13.9.9 Case Study - The "D-Two" Decommissioning Company
13.9.10 Case Study - The "Delay and Decay" Decommissioning Company
13.9.11 Suggested Case Study Solutions
14 Hazard Reduction and Project Prioritisation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Understanding Risk and Doses
14.3 Hazard Reduction
14.3.1 Why is Hazard Reduction Important?
14.3.2 How are Hazards Reduced?
14.3.3 What Methods may be used to Gauge Hazard Reduction?
14.4 Project Prioritisation
14.4.1 Why do we need to Prioritise our Projects?
14.4.2 A Prioritisation Methodology
14.4.3 The Model
14.5 Case Studies
14.5.1 Case Study – Hazard Reduction Over Time on Site X
14.5.2 Case Study - "My project is more important than yours";
A Case for Project Prioritisation
15 Decommissioning Cost Estimating
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Conventional Cost Estimating
15.3 Standardised Cost Listings
15.4 Parametric Cost Estimating
16 Waste Management – Introduction and Overview
16.1 Requirements to Manage Radioactive Wastes
16.2 Characterisation and Segregation
16.3 Passive Safety
16.4 Classification of Wastes
16.4.1 Introduction
16.4.2 Exempt Materials
16.4.3 Clean Materials – Free Release
16.4.4 Very Low Level Waste (VLLW)
16.4.5 Low Level Waste (LLW)
16.4.6 Intermediate Level Waste (ILW)
16.4.7 High Level Waste (HLW)
16.5 Summary
17 Waste Management Strategy
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Waste Management Strategy Requirements
17.2.1 Regulations
17.2.2 Consultation
17.2.3 Completeness
17.2.4 NII Requirements
17.2.5 Environment Agencies’ Requirements
17.2.6 ILW Disposal Company (Nirex) Requirements
17.2.7 LLW Disposal Company (BNFL, Drigg) Requirements
17.2.8 Integration of the Strategy
17.2.9 Costs
17.3 Elements of Waste Management Strategy
17.3.1 Waste Generation
17.3.2 Interim Storage
17.3.3 Retrieval
17.3.4 Treatment
17.3.5 Conditioning
17.3.6 Storage
17.3.7 Disposal
17.4 Strategic Planning
17.4.1 Waste Inventory
17.4.2 Evaluation of Treatment/Processing Options
17.4.3 Refere